Glossary

An application package is a Dart package that contains a program or app with a main entrypoint. Meant to be run directly, either on the command line, in a browser, or by another embedder, such as provided by Flutter.

Application packages can have dependencies on other packages, but are never depended on themselves. Unlike regular packages, they are not intended to be shared.

Application packages should check their lockfiles into source control, so that everyone working on the application and every location the application is deployed has a consistent set of dependencies.

An assist is an automated, local code edit targeted at making common improvements to code. Examples of assists include converting switch statements to switch expressions, reversing the then and else blocks in an if statement, and inserting widgets into a widget structure.

The bottom type in Dart is the type that has no values and is considered a subtype of every other type.

In Dart, the bottom type is represented by the Never type.

This means a value of type Never can be used anywhere, because such a value can never actually exist. It's most often used as the return type of functions to indicate they never return, such as for those that throw exceptions or loop forever.

For example, the following fail function always throws an exception, so it's declared with a return type of Never to indicate that it never returns:

Never fail(String message) {
  throw Exception(message);
}

void main() {
  String result = fail('Oops'); // OK: Never is a subtype of String.
}

Since fail never returns, assigning it to a String is allowed.

In Dart, a combinator is a clause that follows an import or export directive to limit or modify the set of names brought into scope.

Dart supports two types of combinators:

• show — explicitly includes specific names.
• hide — excludes specific names.

Combinators help control namespace pollution and avoid conflicts when multiple libraries define symbols with the same name.

Example using show:

import 'dart:math' show pi, sqrt;

void main() {
  print(pi);      // Accessible
  print(sqrt(9)); // Accessible
  // print(Random()); // Error: Random is not imported.
}

Example using hide:

import 'dart:math' hide pi;

void main() {
  // print(pi); // Error: pi is hidden.
  print(Random()); // Accessible
}

A constant context is a region of code in which it isn't necessary to include the const keyword because it's implied by the fact that everything in that region is required to be a constant. The following locations are constant contexts:

• Everything inside a list, map or set literal that's prefixed by the const keyword. For example:

  dart

  var l = const [/*constant context*/];

• The arguments inside an invocation of a constant constructor. For example:

  dart

  var p = const Point(/*constant context*/);

• The initializer for a variable that's prefixed by the const keyword. For example:

  dart

  const v = /*constant context*/;

• Annotations.

• The expression in a case clause. For example:

  dart

  void f(int e) {
    switch (e) {
      case /*constant context*/:
        break;
    }
  }

The context type is the type that the surrounding code expects from an expression, such as a variable type, a parameter type, or a return type.

Dart uses the context type to interpret and infer meaning from expressions, including:

• Type inference ("downwards inference"):

  dart

  List<int> list = [];

  The context type List<int> lets the compiler infer the list type as <int>[].

• Implicit downcast:

  dart

  String asString(dynamic value) => value;

  The return context is String, so Dart inserts an implicit downcast.

• Literal interpretation:

  dart

  double d = 0;

  The context type double makes 0 behave like 0.0.

• Static access shorthand (dot shorthand):

  dart

  int x = .parse(input);

  The context type is int, so .parse resolves to int.parse(input).

Some expressions have no context type, including:

• When used as statements:
  Expressions like set.remove(value); are used only for their effect, not their value, so no type is expected.

• When the context type is inferred from the expression:
  For example, in var list = [1];, the list literal has no context type. Dart infers List<int> from the contents and assigns that type to the variable.

The range of Dart SDK versions that a package itself declares it supports. An SDK constraint is specified using normal version constraint syntax, but in a special environment section in the pubspec.

Definite assignment analysis is the process of determining, for each local variable at each point in the code, which of the following is true:

• The variable has definitely been assigned a value (definitely assigned).
• The variable has definitely not been assigned a value (definitely unassigned).
• The variable might or might not have been assigned a value, depending on the execution path taken to arrive at that point.

Definite assignment analysis helps find problems in code, such as places where a variable that might not have been assigned a value is being referenced, or places where a variable that can only be assigned a value one time is being assigned after it might already have been assigned a value.

For example, in the following code the variable s is definitely unassigned when it's passed as an argument to print:

void f() {
  String s;
  print(s);
}

But in the following code, the variable s is definitely assigned:

void f(String name) {
  String s = 'Hello $name!';
  print(s);
}

Definite assignment analysis can even tell whether a variable is definitely assigned (or unassigned) when there are multiple possible execution paths. In the following code the print function is called if execution goes through either the true or the false branch of the if statement, but because s is assigned no matter which branch is taken, it's definitely assigned before it's passed to print:

void f(String name, bool casual) {
  String s;
  if (casual) {
    s = 'Hi $name!';
  } else {
    s = 'Hello $name!';
  }
  print(s);
}

In flow analysis, the end of the if statement is referred to as a join—a place where two or more execution paths merge back together. Where there's a join, the analysis says that a variable is definitely assigned if it's definitely assigned along all of the paths that are merging, and definitely unassigned if it's definitely unassigned along all of the paths.

Sometimes a variable is assigned a value on one path but not on another, in which case the variable might or might not have been assigned a value. In the following example, the true branch of the if statement might or might not be executed, so the variable might or might be assigned a value:

void f(String name, bool casual) {
  String s;
  if (casual) {
    s = 'Hi $name!';
  }
  print(s);
}

The same is true if there is a false branch that doesn't assign a value to s.

The analysis of loops is a little more complicated, but it follows the same basic reasoning. For example, the condition in a while loop is always executed, but the body might or might not be. So just like an if statement, there's a join at the end of the while statement between the path in which the condition is true and the path in which the condition is false.

A dependency is any other Dart package that a package relies on. If your package wants to import code from some other package, that package must be a dependency of yours first. Dependencies are specified in your package's pubspec file with the syntax described in Package dependencies.

To view the dependencies used by a package, use pub deps.

A type of repository or location that pub can retrieve packages from. A source isn't a specific place like the pub.dev site or a specific git URL. Each source describes a general procedure for accessing a package.

As an example, git is one of the supported dependency source. The git source knows how to download packages given a git URL. Several different supported sources are available.

In the general context of Dart, an entrypoint is a Dart library that is directly invoked by a Dart implementation. For example, when you pass a Dart library as a command-line argument to the standalone Dart VM, that library is the entrypoint. In other words, it's usually the .dart file that contains main().

In the context of pub, an entrypoint package or root package is the root of a dependency graph. It will usually be an application. When you run your app, it's the entrypoint package. Every other package it depends on will not be an entrypoint in that context.

A package can be an entrypoint in some contexts and not in others. Say your app uses a package A. When you run your app, A is not the entrypoint package. However, if you go over to A and execute its tests, in that context, it is the entrypoint since your app isn't involved.

An entrypoint directory is a directory inside your Dart package that is allowed to contain Dart entrypoints.

Pub has a list of these directories: benchmark, bin, example, test, tool, and web (and lib, for Flutter apps). Any subdirectories of those (except bin) can also contain entrypoints.

An immediate dependency is a dependency that a package directly uses and declares itself. The dependencies you list in your pubspec.yaml file are your package's immediate dependencies. All other dependencies are transitive dependencies.

An immutable object is one whose state can't be modified after it is created. When an object is immutable, all of its fields must be final (can't be reassigned), and the values of those fields must themselves be immutable (can't be mutated). This helps ensure consistency and enables safer use in concurrent or reactive code.

In Dart, a class is immutable if you:

• Declare all fields as final, so they can't be reassigned.
• Ensure the field values themselves are immutable.
• Optionally, use the @immutable annotation from the meta package. This lets the analyzer warn you if any field is not final or refers to a mutable type.

Additionally, all Dart const values are immutable. For example, const [1, 2, 3] creates an immutable list. If a class has a const (non-factory) constructor, then all of its fields must be final.

Example:

import 'package:meta/meta.dart';

@immutable
class User {
  final String name;
  final int age;

  const User(this.name, this.age);
}

In the proceeding example, once created, you can't modify the User instance. You must create a new one to change any data.

Irrefutable patterns are patterns that always match. Irrefutable patterns are the only patterns that can appear in irrefutable contexts: the declaration and assignment pattern contexts.

The late keyword in Dart is used to indicate that a variable will be initialized later, after its declaration, but before it's used. This helps avoid the need to make a variable nullable (?) when you know it will definitely receive a value, just not immediately.

Using late defers initialization, allowing you to write more flexible and readable code, especially when dealing with dependencies or complex setup.

For example:

late String description;

void setup() {
  description = 'This will be initialized before use.';
}

Be careful with late variables that are part of a public API. If a client accesses the variable before it's initialized, they will encounter a LateInitializationError, which provides little context. In such cases, consider using a private nullable variable with a public getter that throws a descriptive error (e.g., StateError) if accessed too early as this can offer clearer feedback to API users, despite the added complexity.

You can also use late final when the variable should only be set once. This is useful in scenarios where the value is not available at object construction time, such as cyclic dependencies in object graphs.

Example:

class LinkedQueue<T> {
  late final QueueLink<T> _head;

  LinkedQueue() {
    _head = QueueLink<T>._head(owner: this); // Cyclic reference between objects
  }
}

Be cautious: if a late variable is accessed before it's initialized or never initialized at all, it will cause a runtime error.

A Dart library is a single compilation unit in Dart, made up of a primary .dart file and any optional number of parts. Libraries have their own private scope.

A file named pubspec.lock that specifies the concrete versions and other identifying information for every immediate and transitive dependency a package relies on.

Unlike the pubspec, which only lists immediate dependencies and allows version ranges, the lockfile comprehensively pins down the entire dependency graph to specific versions of packages. A lockfile ensures that you can recreate the exact configuration of packages used by an application.

The lockfile is generated automatically for you by pub when you run pub get, pub upgrade, or pub downgrade. Pub includes a content hash for each dependency to check against during future resolutions.

If your package is an application package, you will typically check this into source control. For regular (library) packages, you usually won't.

A mixin application is the class created when a mixin is applied to a class. For example, consider the following declarations:

class A {}

mixin M {}

class B extends A with M {}

The class B is a subclass of the mixin application of M to A, sometimes nomenclated as A+M. The class A+M is a subclass of A and has members that are copied from M.

You can give an actual name to a mixin application by defining it as:

class A {}

mixin M {}

class A_M = A with M;

Given this declaration of A_M, the following declaration of B is equivalent to the declaration of B in the original example:

class B extends A_M {}

Override inference is the process by which any missing types in a method declaration are inferred based on the corresponding types from the method or methods that it overrides.

If a candidate method (the method that's missing type information) overrides a single inherited method, then the corresponding types from the overridden method are inferred. For example, consider the following code:

class A {
  int m(String s) => 0;
}

class B extends A {
  @override
  m(s) => 1;
}

The declaration of m in B is a candidate because it's missing both the return type and the parameter type. Because it overrides a single method (the method m in A), the types from the overridden method will be used to infer the missing types and it will be as if the method in B had been declared as int m(String s) => 1;.

If a candidate method overrides multiple methods, and the function type one of those overridden methods, M_s, is a supertype of the function types of all of the other overridden methods, then M_s is used to infer the missing types. For example, consider the following code:

class A {
  int m(num n) => 0;
}

class B {
  num m(int i) => 0;
}

class C implements A, B {
  @override
  m(n) => 1;
}

The declaration of m in C is a candidate for override inference because it's missing both the return type and the parameter type. It overrides both m in A and m in B, so the compiler needs to choose one of them from which the missing types can be inferred. But because the function type of m in A (int Function(num)) is a supertype of the function type of m in B (num Function(int)), the function in A is used to infer the missing types. The result is the same as declaring the method in C as int m(num n) => 1;.

It is an error if none of the overridden methods have a function type that is a supertype of all the other overridden methods.

A Dart package is a collection of Dart libraries and resources in a directory, with a pubspec.yaml file in the root of that directory.

Packages can have dependencies on other packages and can be dependencies themselves. A package's /lib directory contains the public libraries that other packages can import and use. They can also include scripts to be run directly. A package that is not intended to be depended on by other packages is an application package. Shared packages are published to pub.dev, but you can also have non-published packages.

Don't check the lockfile of a package into source control, since libraries should support a range of dependency versions. The version constraints of a package's immediate dependencies should be as wide as possible while still ensuring that the dependencies will be compatible with the versions that were tested against.

Since semantic versioning requires that libraries increment their major version numbers for any backwards incompatible changes, packages will usually require their dependencies' versions to be greater than or equal to the versions that were tested and less than the next major version. So if your library depended on the (fictional) transmogrify package and you tested it at version 1.2.1, your version constraint would be ^1.2.1.

A package uploader is someone who has administrative permissions for a package. A package uploader can upload new versions of the package, and they can also add and remove other uploaders for that package.

If a package has a verified publisher, then all members of the publisher can upload the package.

A part file is a Dart source file that contains a part of directive and is included in a library using the part directive.

A type is potentially non-nullable if it's either explicitly non-nullable or if it's a type parameter.

A type is explicitly non-nullable if it is a type name that isn't followed by a question mark (?). Note that there are a few types that are always nullable, such as Null and dynamic, and that FutureOr is only non-nullable if it isn't followed by a question mark and the type argument is non-nullable (such as FutureOr<String>).

Type parameters are potentially non-nullable because the actual runtime type (the type specified as a type argument) might be non-nullable. For example, given a declaration of class C<T> {}, the type C could be used with a non-nullable type argument as in C<int>.

The pub.dev repository maintains a SHA256 content hash of each version of each package it hosts. Pub clients use this hash to validate the integrity of downloaded packages, and protect against changes on the source repository.

When dart pub get downloads a package, it computes the hash of the downloaded archive. The hash of each hosted dependency is stored with the resolution in the lockfile.

The pub client uses this content hash to verify that running dart pub get again using the same lockfile, potentially on a different computer, uses exactly the same packages.

If the locked hash doesn't match what's currently in the pub cache, pub redownloads the archive. If it still doesn't match, the lockfile updates and a warning is printed.

To make a discrepancy become an error instead of a warning, use the --enforce-lockfile option for dart pub get. With this option, if pub can't find package archives with the same hashes, dependency resolution fails and the lockfile isn't updated.

When pub gets a remote package, it downloads it into a single pub system cache directory. On macOS and Linux, this directory defaults to ~/.pub-cache. On Windows, the directory defaults to %LOCALAPPDATA%\Pub\Cache, though its exact location might vary depending on the Windows version. You can specify a different location using the PUB_CACHE environment variable.

Once packages are in the system cache, pub creates a package_config.json file that maps each package used by your application to the corresponding package in the cache.

You only have to download a given version of a package once and can then reuse it in as many packages as you would like. If you specify the --offline flag to use cached packages, you can delete and regenerate your package_config.json files without having to access the network.

A pub workspace associated a collection of local packages that are treated as a single unit during development, enabling shared resolution of their dependency constraints. Useful for developing in a monorepo.

The packages have shared pubspec.lock and .dart_tool/package_config.json files in the workspace root directory.

A public library is a library that is located inside the package's lib directory but not inside the lib/src directory.

A refactor is a code edit targeted at modifications that are either non-local or that require user interaction. Examples of refactors include renaming, removing, or extracting code.

A refutable pattern is a pattern that can be tested against a value to determine if the pattern matches the value. If not, the pattern refutes, or denies, the match. Refutable patterns appear in matching contexts.

Shadowing occurs when a local declaration, such as a variable or parameter, uses the same name as an existing declaration in an outer scope, making the outer one inaccessible within the inner scope.

While valid in Dart, shadowing can lead to confusing code or unintended behavior. As a result, it's generally discouraged unless used deliberately to improve the clarity of your code.

In this example, the local message variable inside the printMessage function shadows the top-level message variable:

final message = 'Global';

void printMessage() {
  final message = 'Local'; // Shadows the global `message` variable.
  print(message); // Prints: Local
}

void main() {
  printMessage();
  print(message); // Prints: Global
}

Shadowing can also occur in nested blocks:

void main() {
  final value = 10;
  if (true) {
    final value = 20; // Shadows the outer `value` variable.
    print(value);   // Prints: 20
  }
  print(value);     // Prints: 10
}

A subclass is a class that inherits the implementation of another class by using the extends keyword, or by mixin application.

// A is a subclass of B; B is the superclass of A.
class A extends B {}

// B1 has the superclass `A with M`, which has the superclass A.
class B1 extends A with M {}

A subclass relation also implies an associated subtype relation. For example, class A implicitly defines an associated type A which instances of the class A inhabit. So, class A extends B declares not just that the class A is a subclass of B, but also establishes that the type A is a subtype of the type B.

Subclass relations are a subset of subtype relations. When the documentation says "S must be a subtype of T", it's fine for S to be a subclass of T. However, the converse is not true: not all subtypes are subclasses.

A subtype relation is where a value of a certain type is substitutable where the value of another type, the supertype, is expected. For example, if S is a subtype of T, then you can substitute a value of type S where a value of type T is expected.

A subtype supports all of the operations of its supertype (and possibly some extra operations). In practice, this means you can assign the value of a subtype to any location expecting the supertype, and all of the methods of the supertype are available on the subtype.

This is true at least statically. A specific API might not allow the substitution at run time, depending on its operations.

Some subtype relations are based on the structure of the type, like with nullable types (for example, int is a subtype of int?) and function types (for example, String Function() is a subtype of void Function()).

Subtypes can also be introduced for classes by implementation or inheritance (direct or indirect):

// A is a subtype of B, but NOT a subclass of B.
class A implements B {}

// C is a subtype AND a subclass of D.
class C extends D {}

A transitive dependency is a dependency that a package indirectly uses because one of its dependencies, or their dependencies, requires it.

If your package depends on A, which in turn depends on B which depends on C, then A is an immediate dependency and B and C are transitive ones.

A type alias is an alternative name that refers to another type.

They can be used to simplify complex type definitions, improve readability, or create semantic meaning in code.

Dart supports defining type aliases using the typedef keyword. You can alias functions, classes, and even generic types.

typedef StringTransformer = String Function(String);

void printTransformed(String input, StringTransformer transformer) {
  print(transformer(input));
}

void main() {
  printTransformed('hello', (str) => str.toUpperCase()); // Output: HELLO
}

class HttpClient {}

typedef Client = HttpClient;

Client client = HttpClient();

Type aliases don't create new types, they just provide alternate names.

A type parameter of a class (or other type declaration, like a mixin) is said to be covariant when the type as a whole "co-varies" with the actual type argument. In other words, if the type argument is replaced by a subtype then the type as a whole is also a subtype.

For example, the type parameter of the class List is covariant because list types co-vary with their type argument: List<int> is a subtype of List<Object> because int is a subtype of Object.

In Dart, all type parameters of all class, mixin, mixin class, and enum declarations are covariant.

However, function types are different: A function type is covariant in its return type, but the opposite (known as contravariant) in its parameter types. For example, the type int Function(int) is a subtype of the type Object Function(int), but it is a supertype of int Function(Object).

This makes sense if you consider their substitutability. If you call a function with a static type of int Function(int), that function can actually be of type int Function(Object) at runtime. Based on the static type, you expect to be able to pass an int to it. That will be fine since the function actually accepts any Object, and this includes every object of type int. Similarly, the returned result will be of type int, which is also what you expect based on the static type.

Hence, int Function(Object) is a subtype of int Function(int).

Note that everything is turned upside-down for parameter types. In particular, this subtype relation among function types requires that the opposite subtype relation exists for the parameter type. For example, void Function(Object) is a subtype of void Function(int) because int is a subtype of Object.

With a more complex type like List<void Function(int)>, you have to consider the positions in the type. To accomplish this, turn one of the parts of the type into a placeholder, and then consider what happens to the type when different types are placed in that position.

For example, consider List<void Function(_)> as a template for a type where you can put different types in place of the placeholder _. This type is contravariant in the position where that placeholder occurs.

The following illustrates this by substituting Object and int for _. List<void Function(Object)> is a subtype of List<void Function(int)> because void Function(Object) is a subtype of void Function(int) because void is a subtype of void (the return types) and int is a subtype of Object (the parameter types, in the opposite order). Hence, the type at _ varies in the opposite direction of the type List<void Function(_)> as a whole, and this 'opposite direction' by definition makes it a contravariant position.

A covariant position is defined similarly. For example, _ is at a covariant position in the type List<_>, and _ is also at a covariant position in the type _ Function(int).

There is yet another kind of position known as invariant, but it occurs much more rarely so the details are omitted here.

In practice, it's often sufficient to know that the type arguments of a class, mixin, etc. are in a covariant position, and so is the return type of a function type, but the parameter types are in a contravariant position.

A verified publisher is a collection of one or more users who are identified with a unique domain name. The ownership of the domain name is verified by pub.dev, such as for the dart.dev publisher on pub.dev by the Dart team.

A version constraint is a specified range of compatible versions of a dependency for a package. This can be a single version (0.3.0) or a range of versions (^1.2.1). While any is also allowed, for performance reasons it's not recommended.

Library packages should always specify version constraints for each of their non-dev dependencies. Application packages, on the other hand, can allow any version of their dependencies, since they use the lockfile to manage their dependency versions.

A wildcard is the underscore character (_) used to ignore values or indicate that a value is intentionally unused. It's often used in patterns, destructuring, and switch expressions to match any value without binding it to a name.

Wildcards help make the code more intentional by clearly marking values that aren't needed in a specific context.

Example:

// Ignoring the value in a for-each loop.
var names = ['Alice', 'Bob', 'Charlie'];
for (var _ in names) {
  print('Someone is here!');
}

The wildcard pattern is particularly useful when:

• You only need certain parts of a destructured value.
• You want to explicitly show some values are being ignored.
• You need a catch-all case in pattern matching.

A zone is an execution context that allows you to run code with customized behavior for asynchronous events such as timers, microtasks, and uncaught errors.

Zones are useful for:

• Logging
• Error tracking
• Maintaining request-specific state across async gaps (for example, in server apps)
• Testing and debugging async behavior

Zones provide a way to track and influence asynchronous execution without requiring the asynchronous code to be aware of it.

You can create a new zone using runZoned (or runZonedGuarded) and override zone-specific behavior such as error handling and timers. Even print can be overridden, although it's not asynchronous and just included for convenience.

Example:

import 'dart:async';

void main() {
  runZonedGuarded(() {
    Future.delayed(Duration(seconds: 1), () {
      throw 'Zone caught this error!';
    });
  }, (error, stackTrace) {
    print('Caught error: $error');
  });
}

In the preceding example, the uncaught error inside the async callback is intercepted by the custom zone.